The Italian Renaissance Essay Example for Free

The Italian Renaissance Essay Introduction The literature of the Renaissance featured heroism, justice and power, influencing modern political, social and philosophical ideals. In contrast to the middle ages where censorship limited to themes and genres for literature, the Renaissance served as platform for public commentary and discussion. However, it should also be noted that though many of the writers of the period had greater independence than other artists of the time from the Church, many of the writers enjoyed patronage by state political powers or became part of the political machinery of these institutions. In Bondanella and Musa’s (1987) The Italian Renaissance Reader, the works of some of the most notable writers of the Renaissance movement provide a glimpse to the evolution of the rationale behind the artistic movement which while adhering to classical traditions, revived intellectual thinking and exchange. Background Though the Renaissance was a reaction to the medieval conservative views and saw the resurgence of arts, literature and philosophy, there was still significant conservatism in sciences. Thus, though many of the writers of the period can be considered to be forward-thinking, the prescription of logic and deduction as intellectual disciplines is apparent. One advocate of the methodology is Petrarch who highlighted classical sources and scholarship as the standard of reasoning and study (p. 57). This tradition or style is apparent in the works of Niccolo Machiavelli’s The Prince, Giovanni Boccaccio’s Decameron and Baldesar Castiglione’s Book of the Courier among other as well (pp. 259, 60, 197). Building from the literature and art revolution of the late 1200’s, Italian became the literary language of the period in contrast to previous preference for other European languages. It created not only a nationalistic identity to literature but also served as reinforcement for state, social and political works that Italian writer would be most noted for. Consequently, the development would also support the growth of publishing in the country, particularly Venice, which in turn will further enhance the regard for Italian Renaissance writers. However, despite these changes, religion remained a primary theme in most Italian works. Majority of the works were either reflective of the medieval themes or applications of such themes using humanism. Themes and Ideas Italian writers sought to assimilate classical traditions in their work in the belief that these intellectualized and rationalized their work. One of the most common themes and ideas in the writers featured humanism and self-awareness. The former can be illustrated by Giovanni Pico Della Mirandola’s Oration on the Dignity of Man (pp. 180-183). In this work, man is portrayed as an individual whose identity and value is his own and though he is subject to religion, society and the state, remains an individual. As such, he is considered both an actor an object of other actions through the process of living. Self-awareness in turn can be illustrated in the work of Leonardo Da Vinci and Michelangelo Buonarroti (pp. 187-196, 377-381). Though they are most renowned for their contribution to visual art, both these artists’ notes indicate their belief that art as a product of man is beyond his inspiration or labor. They implied that the work or artists and in a sense all other labors of man, where to be appreciated for themselves beyond their identity as a work of an individual and in turn to understand the artist beyond the work being viewed. Boccaccio’s Decameron also proved to be inspirational to other writers of the period not only in Italy but in the rest of Europe including the works of William Shakespeare and Geoffrey Chaucer (p. 60). Furthermore, the Decameron is considered to not to represent the characteristics of the Renaissance Italy literature but actually set the pace for other writers since Boccaccio was one of the most notable students of Petrarch. In the course of his story of the ten story tellers running from the plague combined religious themes with secular discussion of ethics and morality (pp. 59-61). In all of these writings, there is greater empowerment for men to mold their destinies and the ability to make choices. Ultimately, the Italian Renaissance writers believed that salvation and redemption depend on an individual’s capacity and commitment to realize them. In such a perspective, though religion remains to be a predominant power, man is the qualifier of human experience. Moreover, there is greater recognition of man’s hand in the life of others as well as his own. In turn, this reinforced the call for greater responsibility and accountability for one’s actions. Impact and Influence One of the most important contributions of Italian Renaissance writers is the establishment of Italian as a language of literature. This would serve as a foundation for the Italian literary industry as well as the role of the Italian writers as political and social intellectual leaders in Europe. Another notable contribution of Italian Renaissance writers is their influence on other writers of the period such as Shakespeare and Chaucer as well as the development of humanistic ideals and appreciation of art. A hierarchy for living matter was also developed based on a hierarchy of intellect implying that man’s greatest ability was the capacity of reasoning. In terms of literary style and composition, characterization and plot development in Italian Renaissance literature influenced the development of experiential narrative melding religious and secular views on morality, ethics and philosophy. In studying these trends in artistic composition, techniques, subjects and styles developed by Italian Renaissance writers, one will be able to develop insights to the social, political and economic developments brought on by the Renaissance in Italy which cradled both the Renaissance and the period by which it sought to contrast itself. Like the visual arts, Renaissance writers often employed illusionism to explore real issues. In doing so, they were able to present social, moral or philosophical commentary without direct conflict with other belief systems and at the same time highlight the value of systematic and scholastic study. In doing so, it brought into popular arenas intellectual discussion reminiscent of classical scholastic traditions. However, though there was significant reference to classical traditions, Italian Renaissance writers recognized the difference between philosophy and science which persists to contemporary studies as well. Reference Bondanella, Julia Conaway and Musa, Mark (1987). The Italian Renaissance Reader. New York: Penguin Books

Types of Grafts in Dentistry

Types of Grafts in Dentistry TYPES OF GRAFTS: Osseointegrated implants can be combined with the following types of graft: inlay, saddle, veneer, onlay (partial or full arch), and maxillary sinus grafts. (Triplett Schow, 1996) The mucoperiosteal flap should be designed to adequately expose the underlying residual ridge, maintain a broad base for vascular support, and allow tension-free primary closure. A midcrestal incision is usually preferred because it maximizes the vascularity to the margins of the mucoperiosteal flaps and minimizes ischemia created by the vasculature traversing dense, keratinized tissue at the crest of the ridge. Labial vertical releasing incisions are made as needed to improve access. All grafts must be well adapted to the recipient site with no or minimal space betveenbetween graft and residual bone. Hence, usually graft shaping and adaptation is unavoidable. The gGraft is positioned to its best adaptation to the underlying alveolus. A good fixation with titanium screws must be achieved to prevent the graft movement. Any movement of the graft increases the chance of soft tissues ingrowth between the graft and the recipient site, and thus the failure of the graft is likely. All voids or defects should be filled with particulate cancellous bone and marrow to provide good contour and eliminate dead space. A primary, tension-free closure must be achieved to prevent wound breakdown and graft exposure. A barrier membrane and filler graft may be used, if desired. Inlay Grafts Small osseous defects at the alveolar crest can be inlaid with an autologous graft to restore the contour and volume of bone necessary to place an the implant and allow for a proper emergence profile. The defect is usually exposed through a crestal incision that is extended around the necks of one or two adjacent teeth on either side of the defect. A vertical releasing incision is made if necessary. A barrier membrane may be used to protect these areas during healing. Saddle Graft Indicated where both horizontal and vertical ridge augmentation[S1], this type of graft is also of considerable value. Aautogenous bone stabilized with rigid fixation to restore anatomic height and width is an excellent solution to this problem. A saddle of bone is obtained from the anterior-inferior border of the mandible (ipsilateral site) and secured in position from the buccal or crestal aspect with 1.5mm titanium screws with a minimum of 2 screws to achieve stable graft fixation. Veneer Graft A veneer graft is preferred where there is only a horizontal bone defect of less than 4 mm. T Onlay Graft The design of onlay grafts can be segmental or arch in shape. Both the height and width of an atrophic ridge can be achieved with onlay grafts. Following Iindications include the following[S2]: inadequate residual alveolar ridge height and width to support a functional prosthesis, contour defects that compromise implant support, function, or aesthetics, and segmental alveolar bone loss. - Procedures aimed at increasing the volume of attached mucosa (free soft tissue grafts, pedicle soft tissue grafts, and surgical extension of the vestibulum) have been recommended in areas of movable mucosa. 75,77,102–111 [S3](Esposito, Hirsch, Lekholm, Thomsen, 1999) There wasIt has also been also stated that cancellous grafts are more successful because of cortical plate (â€Å"Buchman 1999 Cancelous Bone stucture.pdf,† n.d.) Results: A pPositive correlation outcome was found between age and missing teeth found in both groups A and B in the applied multiple regression analysis (SPSS) Group A analysis for correlation between the patients age and number of teeth missing outcome: Correlations Patients age Number of Teeth Patients age Pearson Correlation 1 .326** Sig. (2-tailed) .000 N 120 111 Number of Teeth Pearson Correlation .326** 1 Sig. (2-tailed) .000 N 111 111 **. Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed). Group B outcome: Correlations Patients age Number of Teeth Patients age Pearson Correlation 1 .465** Sig. (2-tailed) .004 N 41 37 Number of Teeth Pearson Correlation .465** 1 Sig. (2-tailed) .004 N 37 37 **. Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed). A pPositive correlation was found between age and bone volume harvested in Group A. However, the correlation in Group B was non significant. Group A multiple regression analysis output: Correlations Patients age Bone graft volume Patients age Pearson Correlation 1 .244** Sig. (2-tailed) .007 N 120 120 Bone graft volume Pearson Correlation .244** 1 Sig. (2-tailed) .007 N 120 120 **. Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed). Group B SPSS multiple regression analysis output: Correlations Patients age Bone graft volume Patients age Pearson Correlation 1 .203 Sig. (2-tailed) .203 N 41 41 Bone graft volume Pearson Correlation .203 1 Sig. (2-tailed) .203 N 41 41 The distribution for harvested overall bone volumes was found to be normal in both groups A and B and a significant correlation was found between clinitianclinician A and clinitianclinician B and their harvested bone volumes. Distribution analysis output. Histogram: Multiple regression analysis output for ClinitianClinician A ANOVAa Model Sum of Squares df Mean Square F Sig. 1 Regression 9317266.326 1 9317266.326 31.994 .000b Residual 42518278.360 146 291221.085 Total 51835544.685 147 2 Regression 16022829.759 2 8011414.879 32.437 .000c Residual 35812714.927 145 246984.241 Total 51835544.685 147 a. Dependent Variable: Bone graft volume b. Predictors: (Constant), Number of Teeth c. Predictors: (Constant), Number of Teeth, Procedure Performer Association between a patient’s gender and performed clinicians A ands B found to be not statistically significant applying SPSS multiple regression analysis. The SPSS output for multiple regression analysis: Group Statistics Procedure Performer N Mean Std. Deviation Std. Error Mean Patients age AP 41 38.85 11.599 1.811 SG 120 39.05 11.876 1.084 Case Processing Summary Cases Valid Missing Total N Percent N Percent N Percent Procedure Performer * Patients Gender 161 100.0% 0 0.0% 161 100.0% Procedure Performer * Patients Gender Cross tabulation Patients Gender Total Male Female Procedure Performer AP Count 8 33 41 Expected Count 10.7 30.3 41.0 SG Count 34 86 120 Expected Count 31.3 88.7 120.0 Total Count 42 119 161 Expected Count 42.0 119.0 161.0 Chi-Square Tests Value df Asymp. Sig. (2-sided) Exact Sig. (2-sided) Exact Sig. (1-sided) Pearson Chi-Square 1.233a 1 .267 Continuity Correctionb .818 1 .366 Likelihood Ratio 1.286 1 .257 Fishers Exact Test .309 .184 Linear-by-Linear Association 1.226 1 .268 N of Valid Cases 161 a. 0 cells (0.0%) have expected count less than 5. The minimum expected count is 10.70. b. Computed only for a 22 table The Aassociation between a patient’s age and clinitiansclinicians A and B was also not statistically significant (â€Å"Reszults,† n.d.). P value was more than 0.05. So the hypothesis that there is no difference between patientspatient’s age and performed clinitianclinician A and B harvested bone volumes can not be rejected the hypothesis. Nominal variables (number of teeth) were not equally distributed. So, a nonparametric Kruskal-Wallis Test was applied to test the hypothesishypostasis that there wasis no difference between the number of teeth missing and harvested bone volumes in group A and B. The hypothesis washypostasis rejected in Group A because the P value was less than 0.05. However, there was no difference in a Ggroup B (p value more than 0.05) Number of teeth and harvested bone volumes distribution for Group A Kruskal-Wallis hypothesis testing output: Ranks Number of Teeth N Mean Rank Bone graft volume One tooth 22 40.95 Two teeth 38 43.41 Three teeth 30 68.45 Four and more teeth 21 76.76 Total 111 Test Statisticsa,b Bone graft volume Chi-Square 23.851 df 3 Asymp. Sig. .000 a. Kruskal Wallis Test b. Grouping Variable: Number of Teeth SPSS output for Kruskal-Wallis Test Group B: Ranks Number of Teeth N Mean Rank Bone graft volume One tooth 11 14.59 Two teeth 11 19.45 Three teeth 11 20.27 Four and more teeth 4 26.38 Total 37 Test Statisticsa,b Bone graft volume Chi-Square 3.855 df 3 Asymp. Sig. .278 a. Kruskal Wallis Test b. Grouping Variable: Number of Teeth A bone volume’s distribution was tested by drawing a histogram to determent determine a parametric or non parametric test was needed to applyin order to test the hypothesis[S4]. The data was not equally distributed in both groups A and B. Hence, the non parametric Mann-Whitney test was applied to test the null hypothesis of if whether there is was no any difference in harvested bone volumes and the performance of theed clinicians. The P value was less than 0.05, so the null hypothesis was rejected and there is was a significant difference between cclinician A’s and clinician’s B performances. ClinitianClinician A and B harvested bone volumes distributions: Descriptive Statistics N Mean Std. Deviation Minimum Maximum Bone graft volume 161 1121.5017 622.04168 80.00 3380.00 Procedure Performer 161 1.75 .437 1 2 SPSS output Mann-Whitney Test Ranks Procedure Performer N Mean Rank Sum of Ranks Bone graft volume AP 41 46.89 1922.50 SG 120 92.65 11118.50 Total 161 Test Statisticsa Bone graft volume Mann-Whitney U 1061.500 Wilcoxon W 1922.500 Z -5.427 Asymp. Sig. (2-tailed) .000 a. Grouping Variable: Procedure Performer Conclusions: A mandibular ramus donor site can provide sufficient autologous bone volume to restore dentoalveolar defects prior to dental implantation. PThe positive correlations were found between a patient’s age and missing teeth, between clinicians A and B and their harvested bone volumes, and between harvested bone volume and a patient’s age in a group A but this was not significant in Group B., Bbetween a patient’s age and gender in both groups A and B there was no significant correlation based on the multiple regression analysis outcome SPSS. To conclude, with thean increasinge in age there were a higher number of teeth missing in both groups A and B. Although, the diameter of bone reconstruction were was greater because of a more missing teeth, the harvested volumes were greater only in the Group A harvested by cClinician A (pis was a significant difference between clinicians A and B and their harvested bone graft volumes in Group A and B (pthe person who operatesor. In aAdditionally to mandibular, ascending ramus bone can be harvested at intraoral sites and can be considered incrementally to the performed procedure, [S5]such as the contralateral ramus site, chin, and maxillary tuberosity, where when greater bone volumes are required. Moreover, the bone materials can be also added too, increase the further if the bone volume is yet not yet sufficient. And finally, based on the literature review findings, the majority of iliac crest bone graft can be successfully replaced with ascending ramus bone grafts as the studies revealed that the harvested bone grafts are not significantly greater. The outcome of implant therapy has been summarized in several recent reviews (Cochran 1996, Esposito et al. 1998, Fritz 1996, Fiorellini et al. 1998, Gotfredsen 1999, Mericske-Stern 1999, Van Steenberge et al. 1999) and evaluations are often reported in success and survival rates. The interpretation of the results, however, relies on the concept that different investigators use similar criteria for implant success and survival. Variations in study design and study period, and an improper definition of the selection of patients are factors that may further affect the interpretation of the data. First, autologous bone grafts of various types to different locations can be successfully used to improve the ability to place endosseous implants. Complications that lead to failure can be minimized with experience and adherence to the basic surgical principles of rigid fixation and tension-free primary closure of the soft tissue flaps. Second, most of the grafting failures are associated with infection or exposure of the graft to the oral cavity because of mucosal flap dehiscence. Early loading of grafts with a transitional prosthesis is also a potential cause of graft compromise or failure. Third, the successful placement of endosseous implants in autologous grafts is more predictable when they are placed secondarily after bone graft consolidation; and. fFourth, whether placed immediately with the bone graft, or secondarily, failure of individual implants does not imply failure of the bone graft. Frenuloplasty, Frenectomy, Vestibuloplasty Technique (Liposky, 1983) oOr Mandibular Anterior Ridge Extension: Modification of the Kazanjian (Al-Mahdy Al-Belasy, 1997), Vestibule and floor-of-mouth extension procedures, Soft-tissue grafts (full thickness or connective) Although COHRANE stated that autologous is not in favour, this statement needs to be taken considered very carefulycarefully because the outcome does not measure all aspects in convensionalconventional terms of success. As stated before, a simple implants survival is no longer a single preferable outcome today. Cohrane agrees that there is littleare few randomized controlled trials and for most that are conducted today are at a high risk of bias remains. Further more, bone augmentation, such as synteticsynthetic bone materials, provide a poorer outcome rather thaen animal retrieved bone materials. However, because of culture cultural or religious reasons animal products may not be accepted for a certain groups of patient and therefore autologous bone grafts are then isremain a single oaption to augment the alveolar crest defects. AeEsthetics and harmony in dental implant placement was well described by Belser et al., 1998. Buccal bone thickness has toshould be a minimum of 2mm and ideally 3mm from the implant buccal surface. 1 [S1]Not sure about this. Does it relate to the heading i.e. ‘Saddle graft is Indicated where both horizontal and vertical ridge augmentation†¦Ã¢â‚¬â„¢ [S2]Please check I haven’t changed the meaning [S3]Are these page numbers? Should it be (Esposito, Hirsch, Lekholm, Thomsen, 1999 75,77, 102–111) [S4]Please check à ¯Ã‚ Ã…   [S5]Please check this one. I’ve read it many times and am a little confused à ¯Ã‚ Ã…  

Theories of Feminist Geography

Theories of Feminist Geography Does a feminist geography need be primarily concerned with the lives of women? In relation to the essay title, according to Dias et al (2008), Hesse- Biber (2012) and McDowell (1992), there are significant diversity and heterogeneity among feminist geography and its research, with no single methodology or epistemology. Therefore, instead of viewing feminist geography as a static sub-discipline, feminist geography should be examined by looking at a wide range of work produced by feminist geographers addressing the issues found in different contexts, with varying research aims. By examining existing studies, this essay aims to demonstrate the fact that some aspects of feminist geography have, in fact, been primarily concerned with lives of women in a socio- spatial context. Subsequently, this essay also aims to demonstrate that feminist geography did not engage exclusively with the lives of women; by examining practices within the geography discipline, associated with the discipline’s exclusion of female, feminist geographer have offered important insights for geographers in understanding gender bias embedded in geography, and has facilitated the re-evaluation of geographic knowledge and practices among scholars. According to Dixon et al (2014), feminist geography is primarily concerned with improving women’s lives by identifying, and to develop an understanding of the sources of women’s oppression, as well as the dynamics and spatiality of the oppression. This description of feminist geography is mirrored by work produced by feminist geographers that has adapted Marxist theory in examining the relations among economic development, space and gender under capitalism (Pratt, 1994). These feminist geographers were focusing on the social- spatial exclusion of suburban households’ female members from paid employment, which was an important element in reproduction of labour power, and has provided insights to how traditional gender relations in capitalistic societies are continued and preserved (Pratt, 1994; Mackenzie et al, 1983; Hawkesworth 2006; Seccombe 1974; Beechey 1977; Eisenstein 1979; Nelson, 1986; Massey, 1984; Chant et al, 1995; Hanson et al, 1995; Gerstein, 1973). F eminist geographers have argued that the isolation of women from employment a strategy that is vital to manage the effects of capitalist economy; it reproduces the dominant- subordinate that is essential to the operations of capitalist production (Hawkesworth 2006; Eisenstein 1979; Beechey 1977; Pratt, 1994). The isolation also facilitates daily and generational reproduction of labour power, plus it leads to the creation of a labour force, which consists of women who are willing to be working for less than substantive wages (Mackenzie et al, 1983; Pratt, 1994; Seccombe 1974; Hawkesworth 2006; Beechey 1977; Nelson 1986; Eisenstein 1979; Massey, 1984; Chant et al, 1995; Hanson et al, 1995; Pearson, 1986). This was demonstrated in Nelson’s (1986) and Hawkesworth’s (2006) study, as he mentioned that in 1970s, capitalist in the United States had relocated to suburban locations in aiming to employ, or further exploit, according to Marxist perspectives, housewives who are mor e inclined to work despite the less than substantive wages. It has also been revealed that governmental policies, working-class household strategies, as well as traditional male power exercised in both families and trade unions are interplaying factors facilitate the isolation of women as housewives to inhibit or minimize employment opportunities available to women (Mackenzie et al, 1983; Hawkesworth 2006; Seccombe 1974; Eisenstein 1979; Nelson 1986; Pratt, 1994; Massey, 1984; Hanson et al, 1995; Gerstein, 1973). These literatures by feminist geographers are fundamentally linked to the lives of women (Johnson, 2007; Pratt, 1994; Hanson et al, 1995; Seccombe, 1974). By using women’s lives as point of departure, they have identify the consequences of the exclusion of women from employment; creation of female labour that are more prone to be subjected to capitalistic exploitation, enabled by traditional gender and social relations which constitute capitalism, in conjunction with patriarchal gender relations, which have contributed to the redefining of the spatial distribution of women’s social and economic activities in urban areas. However, feminist geographers did not engage exclusively with the lives of women. Feminist geographers are also concerned with development of geography, in relation to the exclusion and isolation of female scholars from the discipline, and how this has affected geographic research and thought. As Morin (1995: 1) has described, the theme of these studies is ‘â€Å"gender of geography† rather that the â€Å"geography of gender† ’. Under this theme, feminist geographers have highlighted the fact that geography is a male- dominated discipline (Rose, 1993; Dixon et al, 2006; LeVasseur, 1993). As suggested by Dixon et al (2006), women have been excluded from higher education from late nineteenth to early twentieth century; early universities mainly consists of upper- class white men. During that period of time, female are mainly found in the field of teaching and helping professions, and are mostly absent in the disciplines and institutions that have contributed to the establishment of modern geography, such as geology and â€Å"expert† societies, such as Royal Geographical Society (Rose, 1993; Dixon et al, 2006). These â€Å"expert† societies were heavily involved with the establishment of geography as a discrete academic discipline, by defining geography’s investigation agenda and methodologies, as well as establishing programs in university (Dixon et al, 2006). Since these societies had entry requirements based on peer nomination and work assessment, it was difficult for women to join such societies, as their works are often dismissed as non- scholarly (Dixon et al, 2006). As a result, these institutions had a disproportionately large numbers of male members (Rose, 1993; Dixon et al, 2006). As female are not able to negotiate in this field of study due to institutional discrimination , white men were able to almost exclusively define what constitute as the norm in the discipline, which has allowed masculinist thinkin g to thrive and flourish in geography (Rose, 1993; Dixon et al, 2006). A number of scholars have pointed out as men have associated themselves with attributes or descriptions in their studies on landscape, such as culture, intellectualism, practicality and mobility (Rose, 1993; Pile, 1994; Berg, 1994). The adaptation of dualistic worldview that was assumed to be objective and scientifically sound has meant that women are therefore associated with nature, body and emotionalism (Rose, 1993; Berg, 1994; Lloyd, 1984). Further, masculinist thinking believes that men are capable of rational thought, whereas women are not, as â€Å"female-ness† was thought of as the lack of â€Å"maleness† (Jay, 1981; Massey, 1998; Longhurst, 2000; Lloyd, 1984; Bordo, 1986; Berg, 1994). Together, these beliefs have helped to establish a hierarchical, binary opposition between mind and body; culture and nature; men and women, with the latter assumed to be inferior and less important (Pile, 1994; Rose, 1993; Berg, 1994; Lloyd, 1984). Dualistic world views have also meant that, according to masculinist thinking, men are traditionally associated with public spaces, due to their association with waged work, which requires mobility and intelligence (Dixon et al, 2006; Rose, 1993; Longhurst, 2000; Berg, 1994). Therefore in contrast, women are typically associated with private spaces due to their traditionally assigned role as care- taker at home (Dixon et al, 2006; Rose, 1993; Longhurst, 2000; Bordo, 1986). Men self- proclaimed attributes, facilitated by dualistic world views have facilitated the formation of a hierarchy in geography in relation to gender (Rose, 1993). The hierarchical opposition signifies that spaces that are typically associated with female, reproduction activities are deemed as less important and less valued when comparing to spaces that are associated with men and their waged production activities (Dixon et al, 2006). Dixon et al (2006) has demonstrated that geographer has thus focus their studies on male productive activities , such as steel manufacturing, rather than investigating reproductive activities that are traditionally associated with women, such as day care for example. As stated by Dixon et al (2006), this bias is reproduced in the discipline across multiple research area. This argument demonstrates the problems underlying geography; the focus on production relative to reproduction within geography signifies the existence of a knowledge gap within the discipline, in regard to areas associated with female economic and social activities. Furthermore, this can discourage scholars, who aim to examine or carry out research in fields associated with female activities, to engage with geography due to concerns over the research prioritization mentioned above, and turn to other disciplines that they feel their research will be valued (Dixon et al, 2006). Together, these diminish the scope of geographic investigation, further reducing any potential knowledge that would have been produced and incorporate d within the discipline of geography, which lead to the diminishing of the academic significance of geography, and this urges the re-thinking of geographic practices, in order to minimize bias due to the discipline’s masculinist legacy (Dixon et al, 2006; Pile, 1994; Monk et al, 1982). In conclusion, the works of feminist geographers examined in this essay have all shared a common theme- the exclusion of women and the consequences, in different contexts or settings. In some aspects of feminist geography, feminist geographers have directly engaged with the lives of women; studies have attempt to undercover ways in which women are oppressed under capitalism, and to demonstrate how women’s lives, in regards to their economic opportunities, are limited as a result of the exclusion from employment. However, this essay has also demonstrated that there are existing studies in which the primary concern is the development of discipline, under the influence of limited female participation. They have highlighted that the discipline’s lack of female involvement, which has facilitated the flourishing of traditional masculine thinking as dominant discourse in geography, has in turn lead to the production of biased knowledge and skewed research approaches that const itute geography- this remained to be an internal, innate problem that results in the narrowing of the scope of study, and has imposed limits on the production of geographic knowledge. The problems highlight above, by feminist geographers, can perhaps urge geographers to rethink their research priorities and focuses, to avoid the induction, or reproduction of masculine- orientated bias in geography, to overcome the legacy of male- domination in order to facilitate wider, more depth understanding of space/ place and social relations and activities. Together, these studies have confirmed that there is significant diversity among feminist geography; feminist geographers have addressed a range of issue or concerns that relate to gender bias or inequality in different contexts. Thus it can be said that the â€Å"primary concern† cannot therefore be generalized into one subject of concern. Reference Karen Dias Jennifer Blecha (2007) Feminism and Social Theory in Geography: An Introduction , The Professional Geographer, 59(1): 1-9 LeVasseur, M (1993) Finding a Way: Encouraging Underrepresented Groups in Geography: An Annotated Bibliography. Indiana, PA: National Council for Geographic Education Rose, G. (1993) Feminism and geography: the limits of geographical knowledge. Cambridge: Polity Press. Massey, D. (1998) Blurring the binaries? High tech in Cambridge. In Ainley, R. (ed.) New frontiers of space, bodies and gender, London: Routledge Morin, K (1995) The Gender of Geography. Postmodern Culture. [Online] 3:2 Available at: http://pmc.iath.virginia.edu/text-only/issue.195/review-3.195[Accessed: 19 February 2015] MacKenzie, S; Rose, D (1983) Industrial change, the domestic economy and home life. In Anderson J; Ducan, S; Hudson, R (eds.) Redundant Spaces in Cities and Regions? Social Geography and Industrial Change. London: Achedemic Press Dixon, D.P.; Jones III, J.P. (2006) Feminist Geographies of Difference, Relation, and Construction. In Aitken, S; Valentine, G (eds.) Approaches to Human Geography. International: SAGE Linda McDowell (1992) Doing Gender: Feminism, Feminists and Research Methods in Human Geography. Transactions of the Institute of British Geographers New Series, 17(4): 399-416 Beechey, V. (1977) Some notes on female wage labour in capitalist production. Capital and Class, 3, Autumn : 45-66 Eisenstein, Z. (1979) Developing a theory of capitalist patriarchy and socialist feminism. In, Eisenstein, Z. (ed.) Capitalist Patriarchy and the Case for Socialist Feminism. New York: Monthly Review Nelson, K. (1986) Female labour supply characteristics and the suburbanization of low-wage office work. In Scott, A; Storper, M (eds) Production, work, territory: the geographical anatomy of industrial capitalism. Boston and London: Allen and Unwin Pearson, R. (1986) Latin American women and the new international division of labour: a reassessment. Bulletin of Latin American Research, 5(2): 67-79 Chant, S.; McIlwaine, C. (1995) Gender and export manufacturing in the Philippines: continuity and change in female employment? The case of the Mactan Export Processing Zone. Gender Place and Culture 2(2): 147-76 Nelson, K. (1986) Female labour supply characteristics and the suburbanization of low-wage office work. In Scott, A; Storper, M (eds) Production, work, territory: the geographical anatomy of industrial capitalism. Boston and London: Allen and Unwin Massey, D. (1984) Spatial divisions of labour. London: Macmillan Hawkesworth, M.E. (2006) Feminist Inquiry: From Political Conviction to Methodological Innovation. New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers Unversity Press McDowell, L (1992) Doing Gender: Feminism, Feminists and Research Methods in Human Geography. Transactions of the Institute of British Geographers New Series, 17 (4): 399-416 Seccombe, W (1974) The Housewife and Her Labour under Capitalism. New Left Review, 83: 3-24 Pratt, G (1994) Feminist geographies. In Johnston, R; Gregory, D; Smith D (eds) The Dictionary of Human Geography (3rd edn) Oxford: Blackwell Hanson, S; Pratt, G (1995) Gender, Work, and Space. New York: Routledge Pile, S (1994) Masculinism, the use of dualistic epistemologies and third spaces. Antipod 26(3) : 255-277 Johnson, L. C. (1994) What future for feminist geography? Gender, Place Culture: A Journal of Feminist Geography, 1(1): 103-113 Gerstein, Ira 1973 Domestic Work and Capitalism, Radical America , 7 (45)101-128. Longhurst, R (2000) Geography and gender: masculinities, male identity and men. Progress in Huma Geography 25(3) :439-444 Berg, L. D. (1994) Masculinity, place and a binary discourse of ‘theory’ and ‘empirical investigation’ in the human geography of Aotearoa/New Zealand, Gender, Place Culture. A Journal of Feminist Geography 1(2): 245-260 Bordo, S.(1986) The Cartesian masculinization of thought. Signs 11 (3): 439–456 Jay, N. (1981) Gender and dichotomy. Feminist Studies 7(1): 38-56 Lloyd, G. (1984) The Man of Reason: male and female in Western philosophy. London: Methuen Janice, M; Hanson, S (1982) On not excluding half of the human in human geography. The Professional Geographer 34(1): 11-23 Hesse-Biber, S.N. (2012) Feminist Research: Exploring, Interrogating, and Transforming the Interconnections of Epistemology, Methodology, and Method. In Hesse- Biber, S.N. (ed.) Handbook of Feminist Research: Theory and Praxis (2nd edn) International: SAGE

Gettysburg Essay example -- essays research papers

  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Gettysburg, the largest, bloodiest, and most celebrated battle of the Civil war, is said by many to be the turning point of the war that killed 618,000 Americans. Gettysburg the movie was four hours long, which is about 68 hours less than it actually took for the battle to come and go. The first shots were fired no long after daylight, so to be exact, it was 04:30 hours, on the morning of July 1st, (49 Nofi). Bullets flew from the rifles of Union Calvary men on picket duty along the Chambersburg Pike. It was in response to the advancing of Confederates, a skirmish line of 2,500 led by Henry Keith, a General that graduated last in his class at West Point (104 Clark).   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The battle took place in the grassy country just south of Gettysburg. The Confederate headquarters was located East of the union at Seminary Ridge. Seminary Ridge was composed largely of flat fields with patches of forests. Federal forces however, were set along Culpshill, Cemetery Hill, and Cemetery Ridge, which made the Federals line form a hook. The Federal ground was all elevated considerably over the surrounding land. General Stuart and his Calvary had been sent by Lee on an observation mission to locate union forces. Fortunately for the Virginian army, General Longstreet had hired a spy known only as Harrison, to do the same job. This Harrison was an actor and because General Stuart returned late, it was by his word that the entire Southern army made it's move (181 Coddington). On July 1st, Confederate forces soon found themselves face to face with brigade General John Buford who was uphill and eventually gained the upper hand as he received reinforcements f rom Major General John Reynolds. Bufords own brigade sustained many casualties and after the 1st, was reassigned to guarding the supply train for the remainder of the battle, (movie).   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  July 1st was the same day that the Potomac army found itself replacing General Hooker with General Mead. Meade helped his army secure a well protected area on Cemetery Ridge, and Culps Hill, where it would stay, (aside from the left flank), until the end of the battle. Meade's army line stretched three miles and had an average of 17,000 men per mile, (105 Clark). Lee's army line stretched approximately two miles longer, but averaged about 10,000 men per mile, (105 ... ...r with itself. The brother against brother and friend against friend mentally made fighting even harder. In one particular instance, General Amistead who was leading his Confederate brigade up the slope during Picketts charge, was shot on the Union line. Instantly he was noticed by Colonel Chamberlain's brother Thomas, who instead of killing Amistead, helped him lay down to ease his pain. General Amistead was good friends with Hacock a Union General. Amistead requested to speak with Hancock, but Thomas Chamberlain informed him that Hancock had also been shot. Upon hearing this, Amistead was greatly saddened. Union soldiers then carried Amistead to field hospital where he died two days later. Hancock survived the wound at Gettysburg and went on to run for the Presidency on the Democratic ticket in 1880.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  All in all the war seemed to me senceless, the Confederate and Federal Generals knew this and wore it on their faces, constantly giving orders and pulling triggers in vain. A prime example would be Longstreets following of orders in the midst of doubt. The movie was very well made; it showed the harsh realities of war and the great simplicity of life.

The importance of Effective Communication in Health-Care Essay

Language barriers have been one of the identified causes of many health problems, including timely and appropriate care, exacerbating existing conditions, and precipitating new ones. In addition to culturally appropriate education, interpreting is one of the approaches commonly used to help bridge the language gap for patients and practitioners. Interpreters are bilingual individuals that provide simultaneous interpretation between patients and medical care providers who do not share a common language (Finke, Light, & Kitko, 2008). This finding suggests that a good relationship is essential for high-quality patient care. (Finke et al., 2008) use qualitative evidence from interviews with medical interpreters, and argue that an interdisciplinary team is oriented in just one direction to care for patients, and bring them to their ultimate level of functioning. Certainly, all of the observations provided by this journal reaffirmed how understanding the basic principles of communicati on should be a paramount skill of any nurse. However, many barriers can disrupt therapeutic communication, and comprehensive assessment is necessary in order to determine the culture, religion, education background, and socioeconomic status of the patient (Finke et al., 2008) Patient centered communication empower nurses with the necessary skills to identify what patients are experiencing and place them in a better position to be empathetic. Meanwhile, creating a better health care experience for the patient and a more gratifying and meaningful career for the nurse (Finke et al., 2008). It is also more likely to effectively encourage patients to be active partners in planning and managing their own care. It is significant for medical care provider... ...5. LaValley, D (2008) Physician- Nurse Collaboration and patient safety. Crico RMF Vol. 26/No. 2 Lee Flicek Cassandra (2012) Communication: A Dynamic Between Nurses and Physicians. Vol. 21/No. 6 McCaffrey, R.G., Hayes, R., Stuart, W., Cassell, A., Farrell, C. & Miller-Reyes C. 2010. A Program to Improve Communication and Collaboration Between Nurses and Medical Residents. The Journal of Continuing Education in Nursing  · Vol 41, No 4. Retrieve from: http://content2.learntoday.info/ Patak, L., Wilson-Stronks, A., Costello, J., Keleinpell, R. M., Henneman, E. A., Pearson, C. & Happ, M. B. (2009). Improving Patient-Provider Communication. A Call to Action. Volume 39, Number 9, pp 372-376. Williams, M. V., Davis, T., Parker, R. M., & Weiss, B. D. (2002). The role of health literacy in patient-physician communication. FAMILY MEDICINE-KANSAS CITY-, 34(5), 383-389.

Homo Erectus: Pyro Technology Essay

The Homo erectus lineage consisted of the first human beings that controlled fire, or pyro technology, to sustain life. In this case fire was their lifeline, and without it there may not have been the continuation of human life as we know it. Physical evidence of fire making preserved at early sites of Homo erectus caves proved they were able to contain and control the flames. Origins of fire making are speculated from many hypotheses of archaeologists. Fire making became their lifestyle, and with fire the Homo erectus maintained a stable heat and light source. In early Homo erectus times these beings lived in caves in Southern Africa. In these caves evidence of fire use was discovered and examined by Kenneth Oakley and his colleagues, but the evidence was inconclusive (Clark and Harris 7). Eventually more Homo erectus sites were found and were also searched for possible fire making utilities and products of their fire making tools. In three sites of eastern and southern Africa, Clark discovered remains of burnt bone of a catfish and charred logs, along with other burned plant materials and rare fire-fractured quartzite (Clark and Harris 7). These discoveries revealed many uses of fire to the Homo erectus. Cleary the burnt bone of catfish shows that Homo erectus gained knowledge of cooking raw meats. Materials left behind such as the charred logs probably indicated their source to keep the fire burning as long as they needed. Fire in human nature has always been a fear and still is, but humans have learned to understand and control fire to their will. In Kenneth Feder’s book â€Å"The Past in Perspective an Introduction to Human Prehistory† he stated that â€Å"Homo erectus was our first ancestor able to control fire due to the evidence founded at an 800,000 year old site in Gesher Benot Ya ‘aqov, in Israel. Strong evidence has been found there such as burned seeds, wood, and even flint† (110). The capabilities of having controlled fire drew the existence of the human lineage further down in time. This controlled fire helped human species adapt to new environments with the protection of the warmth of flame and the light it provided. Fire also protected these beings from animals of the wild, keeping them off the food chain with a better chance to survive. Even cooking raw meats became possible through trial and error. â€Å"The ability to cook also helps with their digestive tract breaking down food easier with less energy to do so† (Feder 110). The origin of fire making in the Homo erectus time period is truthfully uncertain. It is clear however that fire had been provided either by nature or by they themselves learning how to build up a fire. Through observation of hitting specific stones together they could have possibly learned fire building this way. Even though there isn’t much evidence of whether or not the Homo erectus could build a fire or not, there are sites showing evidence that suggest they were capable of constructing a fire. In Chesowanja, Kenya there is a site where there were stone artifacts, fossilized faunal remains, and baked clay clasts that were recovered in situ from fine grained clayey silt deposits found outcropping in the Chemoigut Formation (Clark and Harris 12). Even though this evidence is believed to be man-made there is no actual proof that suggests these products were done with man-made fire. Fire making was the difference between Homo habilis and Homo erectus. The capability of fire making and use completely altered human life and then carved into the human lineage. The Homo erectus had fire to keep them warm from the harsh conditions of the winter and cold climates they would encounter. Eventually the Homo erectus would learn how to use fire for foods and simplistic tool crafting. According to Gascoigne â€Å"It will be many millennia before fire is adapted to any purpose other than for warmth and for roasting meat and root vegetables. But more than 250,000 years ago hunters realize that the sharpened point of a wooden spear can be hardened by charring it in embers†. All the knowledge of fire that the Homo erectus acquired from their lifetime was clearly passed onto all human species that came after themselves. Fire gave the Homo erectus the power needed to control and adapt to new environments. Protection with the use of fire helped the Homo erectus protect themselves from wild animals they encountered. These beings used fire for everyday use, in everything and anything. The use of fire in the Homo erectus lifetime was essential for their existence. Without fire human life would have been altered indefinitely. Fire is the base of their existence and even ours. Then and now fire has always been here to help us advance not just in technology, but just a way of living. Fire and its many uses completely changed life for the Homo erectus and it not only helped them survive as long as they used it, but it also paved the way for human species in the future. In the end, fire is the basis of technology along with other tools the Homo erectus crafted in their time as well. Fire became the necessity among human life. Works Cited Clark, J. D., and J. W.K. Harris. â€Å"The African Archaeological Review.† Fire and Its Roles in Early Hominid Lifeways. Springer, 1985. Web. 23 Feb. 2012. Feder, Kenneth L. â€Å"The Human Lineage.† The past in Perspective: An Introduction to Human Prehistory. 5th ed. New York: Oxford UP, 2011. 110. Print. Gascoigne, Bamber. â€Å"History of Technology.† HistoryWorld. 2001. Web. 23 Feb. 2012. .

Describe the qualities in the young Beowulf and later in Wiglaf, that make them stand out as warrior heroes

Beowulf's sea journey and arrival into Denmark is expressed with potent dramatic splendour and magnitude. The immediate realisation of our being introduced to a character of great consequence is shared by the Shieldings' watchman and highlighted with Heaney's colourful adjectives and powerful imagery. Before Beowulf has even spoken or been addressed, we have heard that ‘there was no one else like him alive / In his day he was the mightiest man on earth high-born and powerful. ‘ Travelling on a boat ‘loaded' with ‘a cargo of weapons' and ‘shining war-gear' is indicative of a feat these men are about to undertake. When the watchman witnesses their arrival, he is astonished most by Beowulf's physical appearance: ‘Nor have I seen a mightier man at arms on this earth'. Throughout the poem this is a recurring theme as we are delivered countless images of his physical strength including his ‘handgrip' ‘harder' than that of ‘any man on the face of the earth' when in battle with Grendel and his use of the sword ‘ so huge and heavy of itself only Beowulf could wield it in battle' during his combat with Grendel's mother. Such repetition of course was a key feature in the oral tradition of Anglo-Saxon poetry to establish their important attitudes and values, and Heaney has ensured this is maintained in his translation. We cannot however, award the young warrior heroic status merely as a result of his overwhelming brute strength, both by modern standards and more importantly those of the Anglo-Saxons, there were numerous other qualities required to fulfil this role. The Germanic heroic-code went a long way to defining the system of valuing and honouring its peoples including warriors, kings and ordinary citizens. For a man to be considered a warrior he must obey the code and to be classed as a heroic-warrior ought to exceed its expectations. As mentioned above, strength most certainly was present within this code, along with courage, loyalty and reputation. When the young Beowulf and Wiglaf are examined according to the code, their behaviours as described to us by the poet and as validated by other characters within the epic, confirm that they clearly adhere to its requirements. The importance of reputation is closely linked with that of lineage, few characters are described without reference to their fathers or their ancestors, when Beowulf introduces himself to Hrothgar he says ‘I am Hygelac's kinsman'. In order that he may be permitted to enter Hrothgar's kingdom and embark upon the task of restoring peace and order within Denmark, he must be accepted by the king ‘my one request is that you won't refuse me'. This form of introduction is echoed later when the young Wiglaf is described as ‘a son of Weohstan's' ‘well regarded' and ‘related to Aelfhere'. In terms of personal reputation, we understand that Beowulf has already established an element of fame within Geatland when he relays to the king: ‘I have suffered extremes and avenged the Geats' his modesty is apparent as he resists the need to elaborate on his acts of heroism confining himself only to convey the essential details. He only begins to boast of his accomplishments in a swimming contest against Breca when Unferth questions his motives for participating. Unferth is presented as a foil to the heroic Beowulf, the poet informs us that he is ‘sick with envy' but his own bitterness and inferiority is exposed and Beowulf's virtues accentuated as the latter is able to articulate an intelligent and composed response: ‘it was mostly beer that was doing the talking' ‘I was the strongest swimmer of all'. Again Heaney encompasses powerful adjectives, ‘perishing', ‘deep boiled', ‘mangled' into Beowulf's speech, closely adhering to the traits of Anglo-Saxon poetry and successfully winning over the reader and ensuring ‘the crowd was happy'. Where Beowulf has established and proceeds to heighten his fame, we see the young Wiglaf at the beginning of his journey to achieve the same. It is impossible to overlook his role in the execution of the dragon and in such a feat we can draw parallels with the young warrior Beowulf. Equally as important as strength and reputation in the heroic code is loyalty which is highly evident in both our young warriors. Of course it his loyalty to Hrothgar that brings Beowulf to Denmark to engage in battle with Grendel and in part a repayment for a debt once settled by the king for Beowulf's father, having ‘healed the feud by paying'. Wiglaf could almost be considered an epitome of allegiance when we later see Beowulf entering into combat with the dragon, taking with him eleven of his assumed most faithful and greatest warriors and only Wiglaf remains by his lord's side whilst the others, ‘that hand picked troop broke ranks and ran for their lives'. Wiglaf's entrance is reminiscent of that of Beowulf as Heaney uses a powerfully emotive introduction: ‘But within one heart sorrow welled up: in a man of worth the claims of kinship cannot be denied'. Wiglaf has an acute understanding of loyalty being imperative to the heroic code, when he rebukes Beowulf's men who fled from battle he affirms that they have ‘disgraced' themselves and that ‘A warrior will sooner die than live a life of shame. ‘ Such devotion could only be demonstrated by one who was equally courageous, Wiglaf was willing to sacrifice his own life for his lord and their peoples and of course, this is the exact behaviour which earned Beowulf his worthy right to the throne and his sound reputation. Recognition of the young warriors' heroic deeds and attitudes is not limited to the poet and the modern day reader or Anglo-Saxon listener, the poet assures us that Beowulf was rewarded for his actions, ‘furnished' with ‘twelve treasures' ‘gold regalia' and many other gifts by the king. However, it is important to consider heroism as being subjective and that it should be measured within its context both in terms of history and religion. Whilst Pagan beliefs would have viewed the vengeful and murderous nature of the heroes necessary to conform to the heroic code, such behaviour severely contravenes the principles of Christianity. We must also understand that Beowulf as with all the warriors illustrated within the poem, were human and thus fallible, their being at the mercy of God's will or fate. We must also reserve judgement for the young Wiglaf as we have yet to see him in battle alone and whilst the limited behaviours we do observe in him are commendable, we cannot assess him in the same way as Beowulf whose character has been developed to a much greater extent within the poem.